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At container terminals, three factors converge to make jobs risky: enormous dimensions, constant movement, and tight schedules. Every crane moved, every container loaded, and every truck driven through the yard is part of a global supply chain that requires speed and precision. Delays or disruptions have cascading effects, impacting shipping schedules, inland logistics, and customer satisfaction. What makes container operations particularly high-stakes, however, isn't just the scale or complexity—it's the potential consequences of even a small misstep.
From towering ship-to-shore cranes to busy container handling equipment (CHE), even a moment of inattention or a single oversight can result in injuries, equipment damage, or dangerous cargo spills. Terminal downtime is extremely costly financially, so operational discipline is vital. Identifying and managing risks in these environments is a strategic imperative.
Human Error as a Persistent Risk Factor
Despite extensive training, supervision, and procedural safeguards, human error remains one of the most persistent sources of operational risks in container terminals. It's not due to employee negligence—terminal personnel often work under exceptional conditions, from extreme weather conditions to high noise levels to handling dangerous cargo. But fatigue, distractions, and communication breakdowns are a constant threat in environments where quick decisions meet high physical and mental demands.
Exactly what percentage of accidents is due to human error is hotly debated (see the overview of results compiled by Krzysztof Wróbel in his article (1)), but misjudgments, inattention or unintentional violations of protocols are, in any case, a considerable factor for port safety.
The Promise and Premise of Automation
Automation is nothing new in container terminals—but its purpose is evolving. While automation used to be primarily about improving speed and throughput, today it also pursues goals such as risk reduction and safety improvements (see also RFID automation). Automation promises not only the replacement of manual tasks but also the development of error-resistant systems.
Modern automation technologies intervene where humans are most vulnerable: in moments of fatigue, distraction, or overload. A reefer isn't connected? A warning is sent before damage can occur. A container contains hazardous materials of various types? OCR systems register all the labels attached to them. A person is in the area surrounding the vehicle, which is impossible for the driver to see? Sensors detect them and warn of a collision.
Automation is a safety net and a framework: well-designed, it guides human behaviour, initiates corrective actions, and reduces ambiguity. It relieves operators of routine decisions, allowing them to focus on what matters most. In short, the premise of automation is simple: make the system smarter so that humans don't have to worry about safety alone.
Below, we look at some selected risks and what impact they can have on people's safety:
Incorrect Container Placement
Incorrectly placed containers can not only cause inefficiencies but also endanger lives. More complex safety risks can arise, for example, from storing flammable or explosive hazardous goods in close proximity to one another. But even simply placing them in unintended locations can obstruct evacuation routes, fire department access, or first responders in an emergency.
Reefers
Some areas of the terminal are inherently more hazardous than others – reefer zones are one example. The hazards arise primarily from the high-voltage power connections required to power the refrigerated containers, which typically operate at three-phase 440–480 V.
Connecting and uncoupling refrigerated containers poses one of the greatest safety hazards, exposing workers to potential electric shock, especially if outlets or connectors are damaged, corroded, wet, or lack proper safety interlocks that de-energise the outlet until a safe connection is made.
Trucks and Container Handling Equipment (CHE) on the move
Port vehicles operate in dense, often unpredictable environments. Blind spots, changeable weather, limited visibility at night, and pedestrians on the grounds are all factors that impact operators. Furthermore, fatigue and distractions over the course of long shifts can lead to errors.
Wear, Tear, and Mechanical Failure in Terminal Vehicles
If a truck suffers a tire blowout, a straddle carrier's brakes fail, or a forklift's hydraulics are compromised by a loss of pressure, the effects, such as collisions and containers falling from great heights, can be devastating. The causes of such incidents often lie in unnoticed wear and tear or undiagnosed errors that worsen throughout the operation.
External Trucks as a Systemic Safety Risk
External trucks that pick up containers at the yard are not integrated into the terminal operating system. These third-party drivers are unfamiliar with the port's layout and other specific conditions, especially on their first visit.
Incorrect Container Weight
One risk that should not be taken lightly is incorrectly declared container weight. If the actual gross weight of a container deviates from that stated in the booking or manifest, this can compromise the stability of cranes, forklifts, or vessels. Lifting operations become unpredictable. Load planning loses accuracy. In the worst case, accidents occur.
Furthermore, the weight of the container must be taken into account during stacking: heavy containers go to the bottom, while light ones are positioned higher up in the stack to avoid container crushing and collapsing.
It's usually not a single factor that makes an area or action at the terminal high-risk. It's the combination of physical, cognitive, and systemic challenges that come together. First and foremost, it's the shared spaces: humans and machines operate just a few meters apart. Even small deviations, such as timing, can have serious consequences.
Complex workflows often lead to ambiguities. Unlike a repetitive production line, terminal operations are dynamic. Containers may need to be relocated unexpectedly, weather conditions change, and routing is optimised on the fly. In this sometimes rapidly changing context, assumptions become dangerous. If one party believes the other has already acted – or will act differently – this can trigger a chain of events that leads to errors.
Communication barriers pose another challenge. Radio traffic, noise, language differences, and cognitive overload can impair clarity and slow reaction times. Many tasks still rely on manual confirmation, which can lead to misinterpretations or oversights.
Finally, time pressure compounds everything. Whether it's meeting a ship window or avoiding demurrage fees, terminal work is inherently urgent. This urgency leads to shortcuts, skipped steps, and increased stress—all of which are strongly correlated with an increased rate of human error.
It is precisely at this intersection of shared space, complexity, communication gaps, and time pressure that automation proves its value. Not by eliminating human presence, but by detecting, flagging, and adapting to human constraints in real-time.
Human error isn't primarily negligence; it's a consequence of overworked workers in fast-paced, high-risk environments.
When you have to rely on verbal cues, misunderstandings are inevitable. Different languages and accents over radio systems, coupled with ambient noise, quickly lead to communication gaps. Even hand signals can be misinterpreted, leading to different expectations among the actors.
No one can maintain the same consistent attention throughout their entire shift, especially during the night. Tired employees may be more likely to miss steps, misjudge distances, or fail to react quickly enough to changing conditions. When performing routine tasks, it's easy to fall into the trap of thinking they're "automatically" doing it right anyway—distractions creep in. If you don't keep your eyes on the path ahead, you may miss obstacles.
Even minor deviations from standard operating procedures can lead to procedural errors. When protocols are circumvented or controls are forgotten, the consequences can be unpleasant, dangerous, and costly. This doesn't happen out of malice or negligence, but rather is a sign that systems are overly reliant on perfect human performance.
Fortunately, technologies that automate processes, communications, and data collection can be used to mitigate and prevent many of these risks. Automation provides consistent, real-time monitoring that humans alone cannot achieve. Below, we explore potential solutions for the risks mentioned above, fundamentally transforming risk management and employee protection in terminals:
How to Avoid Misplacement With Twist Lock Control
A container control module ensures that the container can only be unlocked and placed at the location predefined by the TOS. It prevents accidental and unauthorised setting down by continuously monitoring the twistlock and verifying its position. This significantly reduces the risk of collisions, stack instability, or injuries from being near dangerous cargo.
Safe Reefer Monitoring
Remote monitoring systems for refrigerated containers continuously monitor temperature and other parameters, as well as the power connection. Alarms are automatically triggered if problems occur. This reduces the need for physical inspections, significantly improves employee safety, and ensures cargo integrity.
Reducing Collisions and Mitigating Their Consequences
Distance warning systems using proximity sensors warn operators of nearby obstacles—including vehicles, people, infrastructure, and other equipment—before a dangerous situation arises. They provide enhanced situational awareness beyond that provided by mirrors and cameras.
Collision avoidance goes a step further than distance warning: it not only warns the driver but actively intervenes when necessary. These systems can automatically decelerate, stop, or redirect the vehicle based on rules defined by the terminal to avoid a collision.
Should a collision occur, shock sensors detect and report impacts above a predefined magnitude. This allows terminals to react immediately after a collision—even if it is not noticed or reported—and improve driving behaviour in the long term.
Maintaining Optimal Equipment Conditions
Vehicle telematics continuously monitors the condition and performance of trucks and CHE. It records data such as engine operating hours, error codes, and battery status. If abnormal readings or mechanical wear are detected, terminals can schedule (preventative) predictive maintenance and thus avoid sudden outages that endanger employees.
Tyre problems are a common cause of accidents. Tyre management modules use sensors to monitor tire pressure and temperature in real-time. They provide warnings before conditions become dangerous, helping to prevent blowouts, skidding, or driving instability in critical operating ranges.
Another important measure is pre-operational safety checks (POSC), which are performed by operators themselves before a piece of equipment is put into operation. These checks include checking the functionality of hydraulics, lights, and brakes. If critical problems such as brake failure are discovered, the machine must not be used. Automated POSC solutions can even prevent equipment from being switched on.
Integrating External Trucks
Third-party drivers who are unfamiliar with the port can be integrated into the terminal's digital ecosystem through appropriate automated solutions. By attaching tags (permanent or dynamic at the gate), they can enjoy the same benefits and functions as terminal trucks and are prevented from entering restricted areas.
Correct Weight Information
The container weight module is integrated into equipment, automatically weighs containers during handling, and transmits the data to the TOS in real time. This ensures that the stacking logic is based on actual mass and not on estimates. This eliminates the risk of crush injuries, crane overloads, and yard instability.
Human-Machine Collaboration: Making Work Safer, Not Just Easier
Safety has traditionally been viewed reactively. An incident occurred, was subsequently analysed, procedures were adjusted, and training was conducted. This approach is particularly ineffective in high-risk environments; too much is at stake.
Automation is changing the landscape: By continuously monitoring operations, detecting anomalies, and controlling behaviour, automated systems enable action in container operations before something goes wrong. While risk prevention doesn't replace human responsibility, it significantly reduces the likelihood that unintentional omissions will lead to safety incidents. This redefines the safety net: not as a process for detecting errors, but rather as a process for preventing them.
Automation helps by relieving humans of repetitive, time-critical, or low-value decisions. Sensor networks detect errors before anyone has to look for them. The human role shifts from performing routine tasks to higher-level thinking: evaluating exceptions, coordinating between teams, and resolving edge cases. Importantly, automation doesn't eliminate human agency—it enhances it.
By reducing the cognitive load in operations, automation enables people to be at their best—attentive, engaged, and responsive. And that's one of its greatest safety benefits: it protects people from the limitations of their own mental load.
One of the clearest ways to measure the safety impact of automation is by collecting accident metrics—but it's not just accidents that are relevant.
Information about near misses is also meaningful. An increase in near-miss reports often signals that automation is doing its job: The system is sensitive enough to detect early signs of danger and correctly classify them. The more of this data is available, the more patterns can be identified and analysed.
By expanding the KPI set beyond actual incidents, terminals gain a deeper, real-time understanding of where risks exist and how automation influences behaviour. Examples include:
Automation-corrected events per week: e.g., cases where the system intervened to prevent a piece of equipment with a critical error from being put into operation.
Error rate by task type: Comparison of error rates before and after automation regarding accuracy in inserting reefer containers, stack misplacements, or crane cycle interruptions.
Average response time to system alerts: A key indicator of human-machine collaboration. Reduced response times indicate that employees trust automation and are using it effectively.
Carefully chosen KPIs not only demonstrate whether automation is working, but also how well it is integrated into human workflows. They also capture behavioural changes, thus serving as cultural indicators.
The shift toward increased automation requires a new KPI philosophy: one that values judgment, adaptability, and teamwork between humans and machines. Automation doesn't always eliminate human error by itself—but it does help create conditions under which humans make fewer mistakes and are more likely to react when things go wrong.
Automation is often seen as a replacement for human labour; as a way to reduce costs, streamline processes, and eliminate errors. But this view is incomplete and sometimes even misleading. At its best, it's about redesigning the environment for human work so that work becomes easier, more interesting, and less prone to human error.
To achieve this, workflows must be designed so that people can be engaged participants rather than passive observers. This means continuous digital training, integrating real-time data into daily operations, and ensuring that operators understand and trust the systems they use.
Measuring the return on investment (ROI) of safety automation isn't just about capturing the financial impact of fewer accidents—it's also about understanding the broader operational, financial, and cultural value it brings to your terminal.
Let's start with the obvious metrics: fewer reportable incidents, injuries, and equipment damage. This has a direct impact on insurance premiums, downtime costs, and liability risks. Fewer incidents also mean fewer investigations, less paperwork, and fewer disruptions to terminal throughput.
But it goes even further. Avoiding near misses is also an important indicator of long-term safety improvements. The more of these are automatically logged—stopped vehicles, denied access, or lane corrections—the more problems are proactively identified before they escalate. Every avoided incident means avoided costs.
Now let's also consider business continuity. Automation reduces the variability caused by human fatigue, distraction, or errors, especially in high-risk areas like refrigerated containers. This increases asset utilisation and improves on-time delivery—both of which have a positive impact on revenue. At the same time, labour efficiency increases. When automation takes over repetitive tasks, operators can focus on more important tasks. This contributes to a more confident and high-performing workforce in the long run.
Efforts to improve security also impact reputation. Customers and partners prefer terminals with secure, technology-oriented operations whenever possible. Security automation demonstrates a forward-thinking, responsible approach—something that can influence contract decisions and partnerships.
Finally, an aspect that is perhaps sometimes overlooked: employee trust. When employees see that management is investing in systems that protect them, this strengthens their sense of security and loyalty. Teams are more engaged, more collaborative, and less likely to quit. A safer work environment isn't just ethical—it's good for business.
In short, the ROI of security automation is more than just cost avoidance. It's about enabling smoother operations, building trust, and developing a terminal that's resilient by default.
Human error in container operations may be inevitable — but its consequences don't have to be. Automation proves its worth as a risk mitigator.
A multitude of individual measures, such as ensuring the correct positioning of containers and reliable knowledge of their current weight, are changing the way ports detect and respond to threats. The result is a safer and smarter work environment, where people are supported by tools that capture and analyse what humans could never do on their own on this scale.
Investing in automation for greater safety isn't just a matter of efficiency; it's a matter of trust, accountability, and long-term operational stability.
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Near-miss means an unplanned event that could have led to injury, property damage, or environmental harm, but did not due to chance or prompt intervention. Examples include a container almost struck by a crane, a vehicle narrowly missing a collision, or a worker nearly exposed to a hazardous situation. Reporting and analysing near-misses is crucial for identifying safety gaps, preventing actual accidents, and improving operational protocols in busy, high-risk terminal environments. (2)
Proximity sensors are non-contact electronic devices that detect the presence of nearby objects and alert the driver or trigger automated systems to reduce collision risk. Using technologies such as ultrasonic waves, electromagnetic fields, or infrared light, these sensors provide real-time data for applications like parking assistance, collision avoidance, and automatic braking. Proximity sensors are crucial for advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and are commonly integrated into bumpers, mirrors, or around a vehicle's perimeter, enhancing both safety and manoeuvrability in constrained environments.
References:
(1) Searching for the origins of the myth: 80% human error impact on maritime safety https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0951832021004567
(2) Cullinane, K., & Song, D.W. (2007): Container Terminals and Terminal Operations. Edward Elgar Publishing.
(3) Vaughn, S. (2025): Smart Vehicle Sensors. Publifye.
Note: This article was partly created with the assistance of artificial intelligence to support drafting.