Roll-on/Roll-off (RoRo) operations are central to global finished vehicle logistics. The term "RoRo" refers to a shipping method where vehicles are driven directly onto and off vessels using built-in ramps. Unlike containerised transport, which involves lifting cargo into shipping containers, RoRo offers an efficient and less labour-intensive way to move large volumes of finished vehicles across oceans. It is currently the dominant mode of ocean transport for passenger cars and commercial vehicles due to its speed, scalability, and reduced handling risks.
RoRo terminals are specialised facilities typically located in or near major ports. These terminals handle several critical processes including the reception of vehicles, pre-delivery inspection (PDI), customs clearance, damage inspection, temporary storage in large open yards, and the actual loading and unloading of vehicles to and from ships. The infrastructure of such terminals often includes paved areas covering hundreds of thousands of square meters to accommodate high vehicle throughput and storage needs.
Globally, around 25 million vehicles are transported annually via ocean-based RoRo services. Some of the largest and most important RoRo ports in the world include the Port of Zeebrugge in Belgium, which handled over 2.8 million vehicles in 2023; Bremerhaven in Germany, with more than 2.1 million vehicles; and the Port of Nagoya in Japan, which processed approximately 1.7 million units. Other major hubs include Baltimore in the United States and Tianjin in China, both handling hundreds of thousands to over a million vehicles per year. These figures underscore the global scale and strategic importance of RoRo terminals in the automotive supply chain.
The vessels used in RoRo logistics, often referred to as Pure Car and Truck Carriers (PCTCs), vary in size but can typically carry between 4,000 and 8,500 Car Equivalent Units (CEUs). For instance, NYK's Auriga Leader has a capacity of around 6,200 CEUs, while Wallenius Wilhelmsen's HERO-class vessels can transport up to 8,000 CEUs. Vessel turnaround times at port—referring to the duration of loading and unloading operations—can range from 12 to 36 hours, depending on berth availability, terminal efficiency, and the number of vehicles involved.
Despite its advantages, the RoRo sector also faces operational challenges. Congestion at terminals is a recurring issue, particularly during peak shipping seasons. Furthermore, the ongoing shift toward electric vehicles is forcing ports to adapt to new safety protocols, such as fire risk mitigation and the creation of battery-safe storage zones. In addition, global RoRo operations are increasingly influenced by geopolitical events that can disrupt trade routes and terminal operations, such as the recent instability in the Red Sea.
In summary, RoRo operations at car terminals are a highly specialised, large-scale logistics function essential to the global distribution of finished vehicles. With continued investment in infrastructure and vessel technology, this mode of transport remains crucial for automakers and logistics providers worldwide.
Vehicle compound management is one of the most vital operational areas within a RoRo terminal. These large, paved, and secured areas function as temporary storage zones where finished vehicles are managed between arriving at the port and loading onto a RoRo vessel, or vice versa in the case of imports. The efficiency and accuracy of compound operations directly impact vessel turnaround, supply chain visibility, and vehicle condition integrity.
Vehicle Reception and Gate-In Process
The vehicle handling process begins with reception at the terminal gate. As vehicles arrive by truck or rail from manufacturing plants or inland hubs, they undergo a structured gate-in process. Each vehicle is identified and registered using its unique Vehicle Identification Number (VIN), often scanned via handheld devices or automated portals (see: Vehicle identification during car logistics processes). A detailed damage inspection is conducted to document the vehicle's condition at the time of arrival. This ensures liability is clearly recorded in case of future claims. Once verified, vehicles are cleared for entry into the compound and formally handed over to the terminal operator's custody.
Allocation to Storage Zones
After check-in, vehicles are assigned parking slots within the compound based on a range of criteria, including shipping schedules, customer or brand grouping, vehicle type, or special handling needs. For example, electric vehicles may require parking in areas equipped with charging or safety systems. Compound layouts are carefully designed into numbered lanes and zones to optimise space usage and facilitate efficient movement. Allocation decisions are supported by yard management systems that help reduce unnecessary vehicle relocations and support fast retrieval when needed.
Vehicle Tracking and Location Management
Maintaining real-time visibility of every vehicle is fundamental to compound management. To achieve this, terminals use systems that track each vehicle's position using barcode scans, RFID tags, or, increasingly, real-time locating systems (RTLS) using GPS, ultra-wideband (UWB), or Bluetooth technologies. All location data is integrated into digital yard management platforms, which are often synchronised with terminal operating systems (TOS) and, in some cases, with OEM logistics platforms. This level of digital control ensures that vehicles can be found quickly, especially during high-volume vessel loading operations.
Pre-Delivery Inspection and Value-Added Services
In many RoRo terminals, compound areas are integrated with or located next to pre-delivery inspection (PDI) centres. These facilities perform quality assurance and value-added services before vehicles are exported. Standard tasks may include vehicle washing, fuel level checks, battery charging, tire pressure adjustments, software updates, and installation of optional equipment such as spoilers or infotainment systems. Depending on the customer, services might also include branding, removal of protective films, or recalls for technical upgrades. Vehicles may pass through these service centres before returning to the compound for final staging (see also: the vehicle processing center).
Reallocation and Staging for Vessel Loading
As a RoRo vessel's port call approaches, vehicles scheduled for export are moved from general storage zones to staging areas closer to the quay. This staging process is essential for ensuring a smooth and fast loading operation. Vehicles are re-parked in precise sequences according to the vessel's stowage plan, which specifies deck positions and ramp access points. A final inspection is usually performed to ensure the vehicles are clean, damage-free, and ready for loading. The staging operation is tightly synchronised with vessel operations and typically involves close coordination between the terminal operator, the shipping line, and the stevedoring crew.
Terminal Security and Regulatory Compliance
Security and compliance are continuous concerns within vehicle compounds. Terminals employ 24/7 surveillance systems, including CCTV cameras, motion sensors, and secured perimeters. Entry is restricted to authorised personnel using badge access or biometric systems. On the regulatory side, customs procedures are managed within the compound, especially for export documentation, import declarations, and inspection of specific vehicle batches. In countries such as Australia or New Zealand, additional biosecurity inspections are conducted to ensure vehicles are free of soil, insects, or plant material before entering the country.
Inventory Control and Reporting
Accurate inventory management underpins all compound operations. Terminals conduct regular audits to ensure the physical location of vehicles matches digital records. In some cases, drone-based or automated scanning supports daily reconciliation. Reports on vehicle dwell time, exception handling (such as damage, misplaced units, or process errors), and vehicle readiness are routinely shared with OEMs and logistics providers. This transparency is critical in maintaining trust and efficiency across the vehicle supply chain.
In summary, vehicle compound management at RoRo terminals involves far more than parking vehicles. It is a coordinated system of traceability, preparation, compliance, and flow control that ensures finished vehicles move efficiently from land to sea—and ultimately to their final destination in pristine condition.
Vehicle tracking technology plays a central role in effectively managing a vehicle compound at a RoRo terminal. These large, dynamic environments often hold thousands—sometimes tens of thousands—of vehicles at any given time, with constant movements due to arrivals, inspections, service processes, and vessel loading schedules. Without a reliable tracking system, locating specific vehicles quickly and accurately becomes extremely challenging and introduces significant risk for delays, misplacements, and operational inefficiencies.
At its core, vehicle tracking technology provides real-time visibility into each unit's precise location and status within the compound. This is typically achieved through the use of RFID tags, barcode scanning, GPS devices, or real-time locating systems (RTLS) based on ultra-wideband (UWB) or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). Each vehicle is digitally registered upon arrival, and its movements—whether into inspection zones, service bays, or pre-staging areas for loading—are logged automatically or through handheld devices operated by yard personnel.
This constant flow of location data feeds into a centralised yard management system (YMS), which acts as the digital brain of the compound. The system enables operators to identify the location of any vehicle instantly, optimise parking allocation, and automate the sequencing process for outbound shipments. For instance, when preparing for a vessel call, the YMS can generate precise vehicle pick-up lists based on the shipping line's stowage plan, guiding drivers or autonomous towing units directly to the right vehicle without trial and error.
In addition to enhancing operational speed, tracking technology significantly reduces errors. Misplaced vehicles or misloads—where the wrong vehicle is loaded onto a vessel—are costly and disruptive. With real-time tracking, such mistakes become rare exceptions. Furthermore, vehicle tracking supports quality assurance by integrating with systems that record condition reports, battery status, and time stamps, allowing terminals to identify and investigate anomalies such as long dwell times, repeated movements, or unexplained damage.
For compound managers and OEMs, the technology also enables powerful analytics. Logistics teams can identify bottlenecks and continuously refine compound layouts and workflows by collecting granular data on dwell time, movement frequency, or loading efficiency. In high-volume export hubs, the use of tracking systems has been shown to reduce retrieval times by more than 40% and improve gate-to-vessel cycle times, directly contributing to reduced port congestion and faster vessel turnaround.
Ultimately, vehicle tracking technology transforms what could be a chaotic vehicle storage environment into a controlled, data-driven logistics operation. It ensures that every unit remains visible and accessible throughout its journey in the terminal, enabling speed, accuracy, and accountability from when a vehicle enters the compound to when it rolls onto a ship.
The key difference between a real-time data system and a planned-data-only system in vehicle compound management lies in how vehicle movements are tracked and decisions are made: one relies on live, continuous input from digital sources, while the other depends largely on pre-defined plans and manual compliance by personnel, particularly drivers.
A planned-data-only system typically uses a static vehicle plan—often generated after the gate-in process—to determine where each car should be parked, when it should move, and where it should go next. The assumption is that drivers will follow the plan precisely. These systems may use spreadsheets or basic yard management software that stores the intended location of each vehicle but lacks dynamic feedback. Any updates—such as movement to a service bay or pre-loading area—must be entered manually. If a driver parks a vehicle in a different spot or forgets to scan it, the system has no way of knowing. As a result, misplaced vehicles, delayed retrievals, and manual search efforts become common problems. The system works only as well as the discipline of the drivers and the reliability of manual inputs.
In contrast, a real-time data system continuously collects location and status information from every vehicle in the yard. This can be done through technologies such as RFID tags, GPS devices, Bluetooth beacons, or Ultra-Wideband (UWB) sensors. The yard management system automatically tracks and updates each movement without relying on driver intervention. When a vehicle is moved—even if it's to an unexpected location—the system registers the change immediately. Compound managers can see exactly where every vehicle is, its condition, and whether it's in the correct zone for service or loading. This eliminates guesswork, dramatically reduces the chance of error, and allows for faster, more reliable execution of complex logistics processes.
The benefits of a real-time system over a planned-only system are significant. First, it enhances operational efficiency, as workers no longer waste time searching for misplaced vehicles. Second, it improves accuracy and accountability because every movement is tracked and documented automatically. Third, it enables faster responsiveness to changes in schedules, vessel calls, or yard congestion, since the system always reflects the actual yard state. Finally, it supports data-driven decision-making by generating performance insights that are impossible to obtain from static, manually updated systems.
While planned-data systems may still be suitable for small or low-volume terminals where manual tracking is manageable, real-time systems are increasingly becoming the standard in modern, high-throughput compounds. As vehicle volumes grow and loading schedules tighten, the trust-based model of planned data simply cannot compete with the reliability, speed, and transparency of real-time tracking.
What is the primary purpose of a vehicle compound in RoRo terminal operations?
The vehicle compound serves as a secure, organised staging area where finished vehicles are temporarily stored and managed between arrival at the port and loading onto a vessel, or vice versa for imports. It enables terminals to efficiently handle high volumes of cars, trucks, and other vehicles by providing space for inspection, servicing, customs clearance, and sequencing ahead of vessel loading. A well-managed compound ensures that vehicles are stored safely, tracked accurately, and moved efficiently through each export or import process stage.
How are vehicles tracked and located within large compounds?
Vehicles in modern compounds are tracked using a combination of technologies such as barcode scans, RFID tags, GPS modules, or real-time locating systems (RTLS) based on ultra-wideband (UWB) or Bluetooth. Each vehicle's movements—entering the compound, going through inspection, or being moved to a staging area—are recorded automatically or via handheld devices. This data is fed into a yard management system (YMS), which gives operators real-time visibility of every vehicle's exact location and status, significantly improving retrieval speed, reducing search time, and minimising the risk of errors.
What happens if a vehicle is misplaced in the compound or moved incorrectly?
In systems that rely only on planned data or manual input, a misplaced vehicle can cause significant delays, especially if it cannot be located quickly for loading. This often leads to manual searches and missed shipping slots. However, incorrect movements are immediately detected in real-time data environments because the system continuously updates vehicle positions. Operators are alerted if a vehicle is not where it is supposed to be or if it enters an unauthorised zone. This ability to instantly correct errors reduces operational downtime and ensures smoother vessel loading and unloading procedures.
Vehicle compound management is the backbone of efficient RoRo terminal operations, ensuring that finished vehicles are safely stored, tracked, and moved. As global volumes rise and supply chains grow more complex, the shift toward smarter logistics is accelerating. The semi-automation of finished vehicle logistics—through real-time tracking, intelligent yard systems, and automated workflows—offers a powerful step forward. It enhances operational speed, reduces human error, and builds a more resilient logistics chain without requiring full autonomy. For OEMs and logistics providers, embracing this hybrid model is key to staying competitive in a rapidly evolving industry.
Delve deeper into one of our core topics: Car logistics
Ocean transport refers to the movement of goods and cargo by sea, using vessels such as container ships, bulk carriers, tankers, and RoRo vessels. It is the backbone of global trade, handling over 80% of international freight by volume. Ocean transport offers cost-effective shipping over long distances, though it is slower than air freight. It plays a critical role in supply chains, particularly for heavy, large, or high-volume goods. (7)
References:
(1) Drewry Maritime Research – Finished Vehicle Shipping Annual Review and Forecast, 2023
(2) Automotive Logistics Magazine, various issues (2023-2024)
(3) Port Authority of Zeebrugge, Bremerhaven, Baltimore – Annual Statistics
(4) Wallenius Wilhelmsen Fleet Info – www.walleniuswilhelmsen.com
(5) NYK Line Vessel Specifications – www.nyk.com
(6) European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) Port Data Reports
(7) Stopford, M. (2009). Maritime Economics (3rd ed.). Routledge.